Glossary

absolutism, political A political system in which the state has immense power over its citizens to ensure peace and security.

agent causation The view that a free action is caused by an agent (person) and is not wholly determined by previous events.

agnostic Someone who neither accepts nor denies God’s existence.

anarchism The political view that the state has no right to violate personal freedom or autonomy.

appeal to ignorance The fallacy of arguing either that (i) a claim is true because it has not been proven false or (ii) a claim is false because it has not been proven true.

appeal to the person The fallacy of rejecting a statement on the grounds that it comes from a particular person, not because the statement or claim itself is false or dubious.

appeal to popularity The fallacy of arguing that a claim must be true not because it is backed by good reasons but simply because many people believe it.

a posteriori argument An argument with premises that can be known only through experience.

a posteriori knowledge Knowledge that depends entirely on sense experience.

a priori argument An argument that does not depend on premises known only through experience.

a priori knowledge Knowledge acquired independently of or prior to sense experience.

argument A group of statements—one statement to be supported (the conclusion) and one or more statements trying to support it (the premises).

argument from evil An argument purporting to show that because there is unnecessary evil, an all-powerful, all-knowing, and all-good God must not exist.

atheist Someone who denies God’s existence.

axiology The study of value, including both aesthetic value and moral value.

begging the question The fallacy of trying to prove a conclusion by using that very same conclusion as support.

cognitive realism The view that there is such a thing as objective truth, that there is a way things are independently of how we represent these things to ourselves.

cognitive relativism The view that truth is relative, that the way things are depends on how we represent them to ourselves.

compatibilism The view that free actions are compatible with causal determinism.

composition The fallacy of arguing erroneously that what can be said of the parts can also be said of the whole.

conclusion In an argument, the statement to be supported by premises.

cosmological argument An argument that tries to show that from the fact that the universe exists, God exists.

cultural relativism The view that right actions are those sanctioned by one’s culture.

deductive argument An argument meant to give logically conclusive support to its conclusion.

democracy A political system based on the principles of majority decision-making and individual rights.

deontological ethics Moral theories in which the rightness of actions is determined not solely by their consequences but partly or entirely by their intrinsic nature.

determinism The doctrine that every event has a cause.

dialectic A process of reasoning or intellectual conversation in which argument and counterargument, or thesis and counterthesis, are continually juxtaposed to discover the truth of a matter.

distributive justice (or social justice) The fair distribution of society’s benefits and burdens—such things as jobs, income, property, liberties, rights, welfare aid, taxes, and public service.

divine command theory The doctrine that God is the creator of morality.

division The fallacy of arguing erroneously that what can be said of the whole can be said of the parts.

dualism The view that the mind (or soul) and the body are two separate things.

dualism, property The view that mental properties are nonphysical properties arising from, but not reducible to, physical properties.

dualism, substance The notion that mind and body consist of two fundamentally different kinds of stuff or substances.

empiricism The view that our knowledge of the empirical world comes solely from sense experience.

epistemology The philosophical study of knowledge.

equivocation The fallacy of assigning two different meanings to the same significant word in an argument.

ethical egoism The view that right actions are those that serve one’s own best interests.

ethical relativism The view that moral standards do not have independent status but are relative to what individuals or cultures believe.

ethics The study of morality using the methods of philosophy.

ethics of care An ethical perspective that focuses on the unique demands of specific situations and the virtues and feelings that are central to close personal relationships—empathy, compassion, love, sympathy, and fidelity.

evidentialism The view that we are justified in believing something only if it supported by sufficient evidence.

fallacy A common but bad argument.

false dilemma The fallacy of unacceptable arguing erroneously that because there are only two alternatives to choose from, and one of them is false, the other one must be true.

functionalism The view that the mind is the functions that the brain performs.

genetic fallacy The fallacy of arguing that a statement can be judged true or false based on its source.

hard determinism The view that there is no free will.

idealism, philosophical The view that reality is in some way mental in nature.

identity theory The view that mental states are identical to physical brain states.

incompatibilism The view that if determinism is true, no one can act freely.

indicator words Words that often accompany an argument and indicate that a premise or conclusion is present.

inductive argument An argument meant to provide probable support to its conclusion.

inference The process of reasoning from premises to a conclusion.

inference to the best explanation A form of inductive reasoning in which we reason from premises about a state of affairs to an explanation for that state of affairs.

liberalism, political The doctrine that a government should promote both maximum liberty and social equality.

libertarianism The view that some actions are controlled by persons.

libertarianism, political The doctrine that people have inviolable personal freedoms and the right to pursue their own social and economic well-being in a free market without interference from others.

logic The study of arguments or correct reasoning.

materialism The view that the mind (or soul) is physical or can be reduced entirely to the physical.

metaphysics The study of reality, an inquiry into the fundamental nature of the universe and the things in it.

moral absolutism The belief that objective moral principles allow no exceptions or must be applied the same way in all cases and cultures.

moral objectivism The view that moral truths exist and that they do so independently of what individuals or societies think of them.

moral relativism The view that moral standards are not objective, but are relative to what individuals or cultures believe.

ontological argument An argument that tries to demonstrate God’s existence by logical analysis of the concept of God.

philosophy A discipline that systematically examines life’s big questions through critical reasoning, logical argument, and careful reflection.

premise In an argument, a statement meant to support a conclusion.

problem of free will The challenge of reconciling determinism with our intuitions or ideas about personal freedom.

property dualism The view that mental properties are nonphysical properties arising from, but not reducible to, physical properties.

propositional knowledge Knowledge of a proposition, or knowing that something is the case.

psychological egoism The theory that people always act out of self-interest.

rationalism The view that through unaided reason we can come to know what the world is like.

skepticism The view that we cannot or do not have knowledge.

slippery slope The fallacy of arguing erroneously that a particular action should not be taken because it will lead inevitably to other actions resulting in some dire outcome.

statement (claim) An assertion that something is or is not the case and is therefore the kind of utterance that is either true or false.

straw man The fallacy of misrepresenting of a person’s views so they can be more easily attacked or dismissed.

substance dualism The notion that mind and body consist of two fundamentally different kinds of stuff or substances.

teleological argument An argument that tries to show that God must exist because features of the universe show signs of purpose or design.

teleological ethics Moral theories asserting that the rightness or wrongness of an act is determined by some nonmoral value.

theist Someone who believes in God.

theodicy A defense of the traditional conception of God in light of the existence of evil.

utilitarianism A moral theory that says right actions are those that result in the most beneficial balance of good over bad consequences for everyone involved.

virtue ethics A moral theory that focuses on the development of virtuous character.